Gender as Determinants of Job Relegated Benefits in Organizations
Chapter One
Aims/Objectives of the Study
The research was an exploratory research. The main objective of the research examined features that hinder female career success in the Nigerian context and also contribute to the prevailing body of empirical evidence that advocates on women and career.
Specific Objectives
- To determine the impact of gender role ideology on job relegated benefits in organizations,
- To ascertain whether work life balance can predict career success of women,
- To assess how few women succeed in their career regardless of these barriers and examine how social support will moderate the relationship between work life balance and job relegated benefits in organizations.
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Introduction
Unlike men the numbers of women in paid jobs continue to be biased despite many achievements women have made at the workplace. This chapter tries to describe the phenomenon of gender based on relevant theories and literature. This chapter explains definition of terms, theories that have dealt actually with career success such as the Eagly and Karau’s (2002) theory on role congruity and Social Cognitive Career Theories (SCCT) and also examine and discuss some relevant studies and literature relating to the present study
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The Role Congruity Theory
Considering barriers to women career success is the role congruity theory of preconception toward women managers (Eagly & Karau, 2002). The theory describes how sex and leadership roles are put together to fabricate two categories of biases that trigger propensity for male managers. Gender roles encompass assumptions about what is required for each sex, captivating on mutually descriptive, thus what truly is and prescriptive explains what should be preferably (norms). According to the researcher these predictions create dual comprehensive groups of characteristics: communal which is connected with female’s inferior status and agentic which is also linked with men and higher status. Hence, females are naturally viewed as highly in communal and low in agentic qualities in contrast to both manhood and heads. The theory is constructed on the intention that most opinions regarding the sexes are associated with communal and argentic characteristics. The theory speculates that group will be completely assessed when its features correspond to the group’s societal role. Duehr and Bono (2006); Eagly and Carli (20070); Weyer (2007) as cited in Eagly and Karau (2002), postulates that communal features, are strongly connected to women, includes being affectionate, nurturing, and gentle whereas agentic features like violence, ambitiousness and supremacy are ascribed more strongly to men. Further, leaders in task- oriented groups are anticipated to be agentic and of higher status. Hence the merging of these prospects for gender and leader roles demonstrates irregularities for women than men. Eagly and Karau again predicted that, specified the inconsistencies of being a woman and a leader, the role incongruity principle, females have lesser possibility to arise as leaders than do men and will be evaluated more harshly than men when women assume leader roles.
Drawing from this theory Ritter and Yoder (2004) study on gender discrepancies in leadership emergence predicted that the normalizing leadership, supremacy, and masculinity makes males more likely to transpire as leaders, even when females hold agentic features, such as supremacy, corresponding with leadership expectations. The study also confirms the strong approach of indirect gendered impacts on leadership despite present-day commendations of female headship.
A study revealed that the assumptions of cross-temporal variations in social roles were linked with different values of role-congruent features. The study suggested that perceivers evaluation on different characteristics depend on the duties that the group members are presumed to possess, this finding was consistent with the role congruity theory’s lodging principle which states that as a group resumes new role, the qualities that facilitate those roles will be more positively evaluated (Diekman & Goodfriend, 2006).
Gender roles are solemnly significant influences on behavior and tend to produce gender- stereotypic behavior in that the roles women play in paid jobs are considered inappropriate as they are probably thought to display communal characteristics. Eagly and Karau (2002) posits that successful females are likely to be appraised unfavorably at the workplace when they display argentic behaviors as this opposes the prescriptive gender role of women. The Role theory adequately clarifies why some females are discriminated against in some roles than others. Specifically, women are favorably evaluated when they occupy positions that reveal their communal characteristics but unfavorably evaluated when they exhibit argentic characteristics (Carpenter, 2001). Evidently the role congruity theory clearly defines the male and female role, which perceives women as lacking the skills necessary to organize effectively the task-relevant aspects of their work (career) environment which in turn will hinder their career success.
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Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT)
This theory lays emphases on cognitive-person factors that allow individuals to develop their career privately and that of others (Hackett, Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 2015). Generally the assumptions of this theory is drawn from (Bandura, 1989; Hackett et al., 2015). The theory suggests that, the individual is affected by situation, behavior and personal factors through complicated, reciprocal relations (Bussey & Bandura, 1999). The SCCT’s choice model states that, people develop goals to pursue academic and career-vital activities that are consistent with their interests as well as with their self-efficacy and outcome expectations. Also, goals are presumed to be affected by exposure to environmental factors such as social, financial supports and barriers. The presence of supports and the relative absence of barriers can promote the choice of goals both directly and via several indirect paths. The choice model also deals with the process whereby goals are translated into actions. Therefore, career success is affected by specific and perceived ecological factors such as exposure to educational and life experiences and the availability of financial support (Rice, 2010). However, Brow, Duffy, Hennessy, Lent, Miller and Sheu (2010) study on SCCT career model suggested that the precise role of supports and barriers relative to career choice or goals may differ somewhat from SCCT’s original theories.
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
A concurrent explanatory mixed method design also known as the convergent parallel design was used in collecting data for this study. With this design, the researcher collected both quantitative and qualitative data at the same time, ranked the methods equally and then combined the information when interpreting the findings (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011).
Mixed method is a technique in which both quantitative and qualitative data are combined in a single study to collect and analyze data. Since quantitative methods was insufficient to capture the particular meanings of success factors and barriers to job relegated benefits in organizations (Braun, Knipfer & Peus, 2015). Both qualitative and quantitative approach was Quantitative Study (Study I)
Population
The population for this study consisted of career women working in the formal sectors of various organization, specifically female bankers and teachers across Greater Lagos region. The study was conducted in four selected organizations in the Greater Lagos region.
The organizations were GCB Bank LTD. National Investment Bank, Republic Bank and teachers in Nigeria Education Service within the Ga – South Municipal. These organizations were chosen because there are quite a number of women working in these organizations whose knowledge, views, understanding and experiences could be explored to enhance the quality of the research.
Research Design
Study I was a quantitative study and it employed a cross sectional survey design since respondents were drawn from different demographic background. According to Levin (2006) cross-sectional studies are carried out at a specific point in time or over a short period of time.
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS
Test of Normal Distribution
Test of normality was done by looking out for the skewness and kurtosis of the scores obtained for the variables in the study. From Table 2, the skewness falls within the range of – 1.041 to .164 whereas the kurtosis falls within -.356 to 2.898. Kim (2013) indicates that a data is said to be normally distributed when the skewness falls within -2 to + 2 and the kurtosis falls within -7 to +7.
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this research was to increase our thought on the experiences of successful career women from the perception of work life balance and gender role ideology and also assess the mediating role of social support on work life balance and career success. In view of this, the quantitative and qualitative methods were deployed. The findings are discussed below. The findings of this study are discussed with reference to related studies and theories. Also, the practical implications, limitations and recommendations for future studies are presented in this chapter. The chapter ends with a conclusion which highpoints the issues captured in the study.
Main Findings
The quantitative findings show that gender could not predict job relegated benefits in organizations. However, the hypothesis three stated that social support will moderate the relationship between work life balance and job relegated benefits in organizations. This hypothesis was supported. There was an interaction between social support, work life balance and job relegated benefits in organizations.
For the qualitative studies, it was found out that women conceptualized their career subjectively. They define career in terms of achievement, contentment, fulfillment, self- improvement, raising successful children and ability to provide for themselves. The study findings also show that some of the women developed their career gradually through formal education, promotional policies and also on the job thus, while working the women went for further studies to improve themselves. Some also went through promotions to develop their career. More so the result of the study identified hard work and determination, job rotation, mentoring and the environmental factors, focused on career goal and promotional policies as driving factors that motivate their career progress.
However, superiority of men over women, labeling, societal perception and women being perceived as weaker vessels are some of the negative perceptions identified about women career success. Also, empowerment from spouse and family and self-empowerment were recognized as positive perceptions. The results of the study also established that the role of females in the society are changing and these changes involve combining work and family as well as women receiving considerable amount of support from their spouse.
Additionally, the result indicates that, career women receive support from the organization and significant others and the amount of support available to the women enable them to cope with pressures especially related to work-family conflict or vice-versa. The organization has created an avenue such as distance education and sandwich programs for the women to further their education. The family members provide support by taking care of their children as they shoulder their responsibilities at work. More so house helps and nannies do help to relieve women of some of their responsibilities in order to carry on with their careers.
The result of the studies similarly outlined some challenges women encounter as they combine their family responsibilities and career. Some of these challenges were inability to pursue further studies due to financial difficulties and sacrifices they make to their families. Most of the participants confirmed that their career role interferes with the family responsibilities, but these do not serve as a hindrance to their career development and progression. Since, they have supportive and understanding husbands to assist them with their responsibilities. The study results again identified some strategies women use to balance their career. Some of which are time management, personal sacrifice, proper scheduling of work and family support. These strategies help them to combine their work reasonably well.
Other factors such as non- familiarity with a new role in the organization, marriage and childbirth, inflexible organizational culture and also managing human resource are also identified as factors that hinders women career success. However, some of the participants confirmed they have not been able to develop their career to their satisfaction since they had to choose their family at the expense of their career and due to insufficient support.
Gender Role Ideology and career success
In this study, gender role ideology described how women are ushered into various roles in the society, morals and attitudes that people have as a result of the socialization they received from previous generations or societal expectations as playing certain distinct roles. According Infante-Perea, Navarro-astor and Roman-Onsalo (2017), women encounter gender-based barriers in their career development due to social expectations and norms.
Some scholars (e.g., Guy, 1992; Morrison, Van Velsor & White, 1987; O ’neil et al., 2008) suggested that females’ careers are affected by diverse structural and societal issues than male’ careers. Generally, societal expectations seem to serve as a restriction limiting women’s choices in terms of their roles and that of men. On the one hand a study by Gyekye (2012) indicated that many women are unable to progress as a result of the societal expectations of who a woman should be and what their roles are.
This finding is in line with the Role Congruity Theory proposed by Eagly and Karau, (2002) the theory states that, group will be positively appraised when its features are recognized as alienating with that groups distinctive societal role. Therefore, the roles women play in paid jobs are considered inappropriate as they are probably thought to display communal characteristics. Eagly and Karau (2002) posits that successful females are likely to be appraised unfavorably at the workplace when they display argentic behaviors as this opposes the prescriptive gender role of women. The Role congruity theory adequately clarifies why some females are discriminated against in some roles than others. Specifically, women are favorably evaluated when they occupy positions that reveal their communal characteristics but unfavorably evaluated when they exhibit argentic characteristics (Carpenter, 2001). Males and females act differently in social situations and assume different gender roles due to the expectations the society places on them. Their behavior and attitudes are guided by what the society expects they ought to do and not as a result of their skills, capabilities and abilities. She further explains that for regularity to exist in any given social association or for any social collaboration to run smoothly, it is imperative or critical that both role occupants recognize their social positions, measure the behavioral expectations connected with their positions in society (themselves and others as well), and mostly indorse those expectations and scripts (Biddle, 1986; Jackson, 1998 as cited in Eagly & Karau, 2002). The role imprinted out by the society for the woman is to first of all be a mother, wife, sister, and girlfriend and make the home. Failure on the part of women to conform to these norms caused emotions of disapproval from members of the society.
On the contrary, the quantitative study showed that, there was no significant negative relationship between gender role ideology and job relegated benefits in organizations. Thus, though gender biases exist in the society, it has no influence on women career advancement. Due to the fact that, women receive encouragement from the opposite sex and sometimes the society and this inspire them to go higher in their career.
This study also found changing role of women in the society as another factor that influence gender role. This finding is in consistent with Giele and Holst, (2003) study on varying life patterns and modern gender upheaval. The study concerns with the best usage of time, talent, information, and quantifiable resources. For instance, the usage of home applications and modern facilities reduces the number of time mandated for household chores. Advancement in health, longevity, and procreative control also decrease the percentage of a woman’s life spent in bearing and nurturing children. The advancement in time can then be used for other tasks outside the home. According to them, gender system changes and goal differentiation serves as a greater proficiency and advantage to people and society in that, autonomy for self-governance than the conforming to set of social roles based on age and sex results in a better fit between interests and chances.
On the other hand, it was concluded that these outmoded gender roles were in some cases reversed, and that men partners sometimes partake in household chores. This is in line with Mäkelä, Mayerhofer and Suutari (2011) findings which states that male partners sometimes stay at home to take care of children. Such resolutions were also found to have a significant part to play by a current study regarding female managers in general and the role of their spouses in household career settings. Likewise, Brighton (2000) study posits that there is a transformation, circumstances have changed, and the few females who presently occupy managerial positions do not cover-up their hitches any more they are aware of the unjust treatment, and express stronger motivation for career development. Ghasemi ((2015) argues that women in Iranian society actively refuse to accept stereotypical descriptions such as the traditional woman’s dedication to family roles and responsibilities and most women are actively involved in society roles and neglects family duties. The study maintains that, highly educated and energetic women support the fact that the mother’s role continues to be vital to their life. However, as women still remain faithful to the family and motherhood ideas, they create different self that values education and professionalism participation in their culture.
Work Life Balance and Career Success
Work life balance is the equal demand placed on a woman by her work and family.
Females entered into work-place out of a tradition of providing prime care to the family members. Whiles women involvement of work life was rooted in this care; it appeared that men’s involvement was rooted in the tradition of provision. For men staying in the provisional role triggered fewer work and family conflict whereas women struggle more deeply with work-life balance ( Ashbourne, Daly, & Hawkins, 2008).
Results from the quantitative study revealed that there was no substantial relationship between work life balance and career success. However, the qualitative results identified that all the participants found it challenging combining career and family responsibilities yet, it had no influence on their career success. There was no significant relationship between work life balance and job relegated benefits in organizations. This is for the reason that the women have adopted strategies such as making sacrifices, time management, proper scheduling of work and finally, coping with the condition. Others also claimed that, due to the support they get from husbands, house helps and families, their home do not conflict with their career at all. These strategies help them to combine their work reasonably well. Some of the women also compromise. Compromising involves both parties sacrificing at least some of the original demands. This concept relates to personal sacrifice engaged in by some women as a strategy of settling the ‘conflicting demands’ of work and family. Time management is related to planning as it involves apportioning some time limits for tasks. Time management is one of the strategies adopted by the women as they combine their career and family responsibilities. Time management is important because it helps to know which task requires urgent consideration and to do them. More so the copping strategies and the support the women get from their significant others help them to combine their career and household responsibilities well.
These findings are consistent with Lirio (2014) study result findings which confirmed that majority of global managers reported they assessed themselves as managing their work and family demands reasonably well, therefore their work-life blend well. Likewise, in order to balance family life and work, one needs to position structure of work and family care well so that family activities can function in optional ways. Gender variances may be over- shadowed by a picture of men and women who were working collaboratively to accomplish the challenges on the home front (Barnett & rivers, 1998 as in Daly et al., 2008). Similarly, Gyekye (2012) study established that women who want to develop their career and family at the same time need to balance their lives by cautiously utilizing their time, compromise and make personal sacrifices in order to have both.
However, the study contradicts with some previous studies. For instance, according to Omair and Omair (2010), Work–family balance or multiple role conflict, gender stereotypes and working conditions are major barriers to women career success. Ganster (2005) also posits that, supervisory work encompasses a pace that employs substantially physical and mental demands on all individuals irrespective of sex. Hence occupying a supervisory position in an organization alone is challenging without adding extra duties from other sources.
Another factor that can explain the observed relationship is the role conflict theory. The role conflict theory suggests that involvement in one role is made very tough as a result of the involvement in another. In other words, women’s role as home-takers affects their roles in the organization because both roles are fighting for equal attention. This creates tension as the concentration of performing one role affects the other role. Consistently, research has found this particular challenge of work-family conflict to be persistent among women. For instance, Linehan and Walsh (2000) found that no matter the number of hours’ women worked, they still took the primary responsibility of childrearing and household tasks. This negatively affected their rate of career progression. However, Females spend less time on paid work than males (Frey, 2001; Hochschild, 1989 as cited in Toth & Toth, 2011).
Recommendation
The study considered career women working in the public sector in the Greater Lagos region. Further studies should look at career women in the private employment as well. Also, the study focused on subjective career success and did not include any measure of objective career success. Nevertheless, Judge et al. (1995) as in Hennequin & Hennequin (2009) proposed that, research studies have remained inadequate as they do not consider subjective and objective characteristics of career success at the same time. Really, it is through the blend of both measures that success can be understood. This blend is necessary in order to attain a comprehensive knowledge of the idea (Hennequin, 2007).
Further research may also look at work life balance of males in relation to their career success. Since males experience high levels of work-life conflict, they are less likely than women to follow flexibility strategies as a way of decreasing this conflict. Also, work life conflict for men is more likely to be experienced as a personal distress than a public issue (Ashbourne, Daly & Hawkins, 2008).
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