Preparation of Acid Activated Carbon From Dog Teeth Sample Using Two Moles of Citric Acid (0.5m and 1m) at High Temperature
CHAPTER ONE
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF STUDY
The objectives of this study are for the following reasons:
- To prepare acid activated carbon from dog teeth sample.
- To identify the unknown crystalline materials present in the sample using the Xโray powder diffraction instrument (XRD).
- To reveal information about the sample including external morphology (texture), chemical composition, porosity, homogeneity and crystalline structure and orientation of materials making up the acid activated bone (dog teeth) sample.
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Typesย of Carbonย Materialsย
All the carbon materials composed of the carbon element has unique bonding with otherย elements and with itself. Depending on type of hybridization of the carbon atoms, the mainย allotropicย formsย ofย carbonย (Delhaes,ย 1998) areย classifiedย asย diamond, graphiteย andย fullerenes.
Diamond forms a cubic 3D structure (sp3ย โ based structure) in which each carbon atomย bonds with four other carbon atoms through sp3ย ฯ bonds. The C-C bond length is 154 pm.ย Diamond has the highest atomic density of any solid and is the hardest material with the highestย thermal conductivity and melting point. Graphite has a hexagonal layered structure (sp2 โ based structure) in which carbon atoms are bonded to neighboring carbon atoms by sp2ย ฯย andย delocalizedย ฯย bonds.ย Graphiteย hasย anย evenย higherย thermalย conductivityย thanย diamondย andย exhibits a good electrical conductivity. Fullerenes are three dimensional carbon structures whereย the bondsย between the carbon atoms areย bentย toย form an empty cage of sixty (C60) or moreย carbon atoms. This is due to the re-hybridization, resulting in a sp2+ฮตย form, which is intermediateย betweenย sp2ย andย sp3ย (Ebbesenย andย Takada,ย 1995).
The majority of carbons exhibit the allotropic forms, i.e. a sp2 โ based structure. Based on the degree of crystallographic order in third direction (c-direction), the allotropic form of graphite can be classified into graphitic carbons and non-graphitic carbons (Franklin, 1951).
Non-graphiticย carbonsย inย turnย dividedย intoย graphitizableย andย non-graphitizableย carbons.ย Aย graphitizable carbon is โa non-graphitic carbon which upon graphitization (heat treatment) isย converted into graphitic carbonโ, while a non-graphitizable carbon is โa non-graphitic carbonย whichย cannotย be transformedย intoย graphitic carbonโ byย high-temperatureย treatment.
Carbons exhibit different structures depending on the size and such a wide variety ofย possible structures gives rise to a large amount of different types of carbons. Figure 2.1 shows aย schematic representationย ofย someย ofย these carbonย structures (Bandosz,ย 2006).
Chapter Three
Research methodology
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Characterizationย ofย Precursorย
Composition of the raw material is an important factor that dictates the selection of precursor for activated carbon production. The chemical composition of the precursor material, mainly the percentages of the cellulose and lignin present in Dog teeth sample were found by means of standard methods (Thimmaiah, 1999). Materials with high lignin content develops AC with high macropores (> 50 nm), whereas, materials with high cellulose yields AC with predominantly microporous structure (Daud and Ali, 2004; Gani and Naruse, 2007).
Estimation ofย Cellulose
About 3 ml of acetic : nitric reagent (150 ml of 80 % acetic acid + 15 ml of concentrated nitric acid) was mixed with the 0.5 โ 1.0 g of sample in a vortex mixer and placed in water bath at 100 oCย forย 30ย min.
Afterย centrifugationย theย collectedย residueย wasย washedย withย waterย andย added 1 ml of 67 % H2SO4ย and leftย for1 h. Then 1 ml of the solution was diluted to 100 ml andย 10 ml of anthrone reagent was added to 1 ml of this solution and mixed well. The tubes wereย heated in water bath for 10 min and measured the absorbance at 630 nm after cooling (TAPPI, Tย 264). The amount of cellulose was determined from the standard graph (40 โ 200 ยตg/L ofย cellulose).
Chapter four
Results
Selection of Precursor
ย
Activated carbons (ACs) can be produced from any carbonaceous materials, both naturally occurring and synthetic. Process economics however dictates the selection of readily available and cheaper feed stocks. Most commonly used precursors for the production of commercial ACs are coconut shell, wood, etc. Biomass precursors offer most economical service because they are renewable with low mineral content and appreciable hardness.
Literature pertaining to use of lignocellulosic materials such as nutshells, coconut shells,ย apricot stones, plum stones is very extensive. On the contrary, Dog teeth (Aegle Marmelos) shellย received much less attention as a precursor for the preparation of AC. The chemical compositionย and various physical properties of Dog teeth sample were presented in Table 4.1. Proximate andย ultimate analyses were performed for the raw material. The proximate analysis was conductedย following the procedure described elsewhere (UNE 32001-81, 1981; UNE 32019-84, 1984). Theย ultimate analysis was performed using a CHNS analyzer. The results reported in Table 4.1ย indicateย thatย theย Dog teeth sampleย hasย aย highย celluloseย contentย (24.35ย %)ย andย lowย ligninย content (19.9 %) than that of coconut shell, which is an important factor for preparation of AC. However,ย ultimate analysis highlights that the precursor has negligible sulfur and low nitrogen content withย highย carbonย andย oxygenย contents.
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSIONS
Basedย onย theย detailย experimentalย investigationย theย conclusionsย derivedย areย as follows.
- Dogteeth(Aegleย Marmelos)ย shellย containingย highย celluloseย (24.35%)ย andย volatileย contentย (72%ย )ย provedย toย be a promisingย precursorย forย Activatedย carbon
- Chemicalactivationย ofย precursorย byย phosphoricย acid,ย zincย chlorideย andย potassiumย hydroxide producedย ACsย ofย variousย surface
- Developmentofย ACย wasย influencedย byย variousย factorsย suchย asย typeย ofย chemicalย reagentย usedย forย impregnation,ย impregnationย ratio, carbonizationย temperatureย andย holdingย time
- Maximumyieldsย 47ย %,ย 69.33ย %,ย andย 85.33ย %ย wereย obtainedย atย optimumย processย conditionsย forย AC-PA,ย AC-ZC,ย andย AC-PH respectively.
- Phosphoric acid treated activated carbon exhibited maximum values for surface area (1657m2/g) pore volume (0.58 cc/g), micropore surface area (1625 m2/g) and micropore volume (0.56 cc/g) at optimum process conditions (30 % H3PO4ย impregnation,ย 400ย oCย carbonizationย temperatureย andย 1ย hย holdingย time).
- AC-PA could remove 98.7 % Cr(VI) at optimum process conditions ( pH โ 2.0, Cr(VI)concentrationย โย 10ย mg/L,ย adsorbentย doseย โย 0ย g/L,ย temperatureย โย 30ย oC and contact time โ3.0 h).Adsorption of Cr(VI) on prepared ACs increased with reducing pH from 11.0 to 2.0. AC-PAย couldย removeย 76ย %ย Cr(VI)ย evenย atย nuetral
- AC-PAshowed adsorption capacities of 3 mg/g and 98.6 mg/g at initial Cr(VI) concentrations of 10 mg/L and 100 mg/L, respectively.
- Freundlich model showed best fit to the adsorption data (R2= 0.996) of AC-PA and theย kinetic data followed pseudo-second order model signifying both film and pore diffusionย mechanismsย duringย adsorption
- SpentACย wasย regeneratedย simplyย byย usingย hotย waterย (80ย oC)ย andย mildย acidย (0.1ย Mย H2SO4).
- Modeling of Cr(VI) adsorption on AC-PA by using 24Full Factorial Design (FFD) revealed that including all the main factors some interactions such as AB [pH * concentration ofย Cr(VI)], BC [concentration of Cr(VI) * adsorbent dose] and ABCD [pH *ย concentration ofย Cr(VI) * adsorbent dose * temperature] significantly influenced the removal of Cr(VI) fromย aqueous
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