UN Peacekeeping in Africa: Effectiveness and Problems
CHAPTER ONE
OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of the study is to examine the challenges of UN peacekeeping efforts in Africa.
However, the specific objectives of the study are:
- To identify the challenges confronting UN peacekeeping in Africa using UN PKO in Somalia in 1991 as a case
- To design strategies towards effective UN peacekeeping in Africa.
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
The study of peacekeeping and related issues needs to start with the proper understanding of the history, legality, and conceptual understanding of conflict and peacekeeping itself. In this chapter therefore, the study shall highlight some theories of conflict resolution and then examine the concept of peacekeeping and its’ approaches.
Concept of Conflict. Conflicts are experienced at most levels of human activity and are complex processes which have certain elements. One way of conceptualizing the relationship between these elements is a Conflict Triangle at Figure 1, with structures, attitudes and behaviours at the points. Galtung first proposed this model for understanding conflict.
He was of the opinion that structures refer to political mechanisms, processes and institutions that influence the satisfaction of security, welfare, recognition and identity needs. Attitudes include the parties’ perceptions and misperceptions of each other and of themselves. These may be positive or negative, but in violent conflicts, parties tend to develop increasingly negative stereotypes of opposing parties and increasingly positive self-group identity.
Attitudes are often influenced by emotions such as fear, anger, bitterness and hatred. Galtung sees behaviours as actions undertaken by one party in conflict aimed at the opposing party with the intention of making that party abandon or change its goals. Violent conflict behaviour is characterized by threats, coercion and destructive attacks.
Conflict is a dynamic process in which structures, attitudes and behaviours are constantly changing and influencing one another. A conflict emerges as parties’ interests come into disagreement or the relationship they are in becomes oppressive. The parties then begin to develop hostile attitudes and conflicting behaviours. The conflict formation starts to grow and develops, thus the conflict may widen, deepen and spread. This complicates the task of addressing the original, core conflict. Eventually, resolving the conflict must involve a set of dynamic, inter- dependent changes that involve de-escalation of conflict behaviour, change in attitudes and transformation of relationships or structures.
CHAPTER THREE
CASE STUDY OF SOMALIA
Modern Ethio-Arab rivalry in the Somali peninsula dates from the mid-nineteenth century, when both states jostled with European imperial powers for control of North-East Africa. The forces of Ethiopian Emperor Menelik probed the Somali interior which is now the Ethiopian Somali region, while Egyptian forces representing the Ottoman Empire garrisoned the northern Somali coast, and Zanzibar claimed parts of the southern Somali littoral on behalf of the Sultan of Oman.1
Background and Causes of the Conflict in Somalia
During the lead-up to independence, Nasserite Egypt espoused the unification of all Somali peoples under a single flag, while Ethiopia fought successfully to retain its vast Somali territories. However, in 1960 Italian and British colonial territories were united to become independent Somalia. This was seen as decolonization without due regard to the wishes of the Somali people who were against the union.2
In October 1969, the USSR trained Somalia Army, led by General Mohammed Siad Barre, seized power in Somalia.3 Similarly in pro-western Ethiopia, Emperor Haille Salassie was deposed in a coup in 1975. The USSR then provided the new Ethiopian Government with military aid; also Cuban troops arrived for service in Ogaden in Ethiopia. The US, which had lost its base in Ethiopia, then started providing Somalia with military aid.
CHAPTER FOUR
Advertisements
CHALLENGES TO UNITED NATIONS PEACEKEEPING IN AFRICA AND THE WAY FORWARD
Apart from few UN PKOs such as UNEF, UNAVEM I and UNIMOZ most other UN missions in Africa were failures specifically in Somalia. UNAVEM I was successful because it had a straight forward mandate and got the full cooperation of the parties. Also UNEF was successful because SG Dag Hammarskjöld and his staff worked around the clock to establish this unprecedented mission as quickly as possible. Furthermore, the international community provided firm support, and troop-contributing countries backed up their words with rapid, effective action.1 However, the same cannot be said of UNAVEM II and III and UNOSOM II which were faced with numerous challenges and thus failed. Some of the challenges identified are, slow rate of UN deployment, inadequate manpower and logistics as well as non cooperation of warlords. Others are non effective mandates, ineffective enforcement of arms embargo, non tackling of root cause of conflict and non participation of troops from developed nations.
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Conclusion
In proffering remedies to the challenges of UN PKOs in Africa, the study deeply examined the crises and UN peacekeeping efforts in Somalia. The study brought out some challenges which have hampered the permanent resolution of conflicts in Africa. Some of such challenges include: Lack of understanding of the people’s sensitivity, lack of rapid deployment capacity, ineffective enforcement of arms embargo and inadequate funding. These challenges, if properly addressed through proffered solutions in the study could result in a shorter period to end conflicts and avert their future recurrence.
The Somalia crisis which has defied many solutions till date has demonstrated that the traditional principles of PKOs needed to be adjusted for any meaningful success to be achieved. Though, the recent UN authorised intervention in Somalia to resolve the crisis is a welcome development however it needs a critical re-appraisal to avoid the pitfalls of the past, this will ensure it’s success. The US and other developed nations equally need to be practically involved through troop deployment to save the mission from failure, as experienced in the past.
Books
- Abaagye Festus and Alhaji Bah MS, A Tortuous Road to Peace: The Dynamics of Regional, UN and International Humanitarian Interventions in Liberia, (Pretoria: ISS Press, 2005)
- Agev DA et al, (eds), Introduction to Conflict Management and Peace Building for the Military, (Lagos: Impact for Change and Development, Aug04).
- Avruch K and Black P, The Culture Question and Conflict Resolution (London: Greenwood, 1991).
- Berman EG and Sams KE, Peacekeeping in Africa: Capabilities and Culpabilities, (Pretoria/Geneva: ISS and UNIDIR Press,2000).
- Boulding K. Three faces of Power(Newbury Park CA: Sage 1989)
- Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Confronting New Challenges, (New York: United Nations Department of Public Information,1995).
- Cassese A (ed), UN Peacekeeping LegalEssays.
- Deihl PF, International Peacekeeping(The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994).
- Dualeh HA, Somalia : The Agony of a Nation, (Nairobi Stellagraphics, 1994)60.
- Frank Adu-Amanfor, Understanding the UN Systems and Second Generation Peacekeeping, (Accra: Adwinsa Publication, 1997).
- Garba CA Maj Gen, Capacity Building forCrisis Management in Africa. (Lagos: Gabumo Publishing Limited, 1998).
- Gockerham WC, The Global Society, (New York: Growl Hill Inc,1995).
