Impact of Flood Disaster on Rural Communities in Ikwo Local Government Area of Ebonyi State, Nigeria

Impact of Flood Disaster on Rural Communities in Ikwo Local Government Area of Ebonyi State, Nigeria

Chapter One

Aim and Objectives of the Study

The aim of the study is to examine the impact of flood disaster on rural communities in Ikwo L.G.A. of Ebonyi, Nigeria. This aim will be achieved through the following specific objectives, namely:

1. To examine the fundamental causes of flood in the study locations of the study area.
2. To investigate the impact of flood disaster on the study locations of the study area.
3. To identify the vulnerable groups from the flood disaster across the study locations of the study area.
4. To identify coping mechanisms employed by the rural communities during flood disaster

CHAPTER TWO

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Disasters are a complex mix of natural hazards and human action (Wisner, B. et al., 2003). This assertion is corroborated by Nott (2006) who argues that a flood event is not considered to be a natural hazard unless it poses a threat to human life and/or property. As a hazard of nature, it is not feasible to remove the flood risk but it is possible to change the human actions that complicate the flood disasters, that is, the characteristics and circumstances of rural communities that increase their susceptibility to the risk of flood. Therefore the conceptual frameworks identified to guide this study are disaster risk reduction (DRR) and cause-and-effect relationship model. The goal of DRR strategies such community-based disaster risk management (CBDRM), and disaster management cycle is to build people’s capacity of coping with disaster risks and reducing their vulnerability thereby developing safer and more resilient communities (Centre for International Studies and Cooperation [CECI], 2011). The cause-and-effect model seeks to establish the relationship between flood and impacts. An understanding of the two conceptual frameworks will lead to the development of a policy framework to ensure that the rural communities live in harmony with the flood risk.

Disaster Risk Reduction

Disaster Risk Reduction, DRR, is the systematic development and application of policies, strategies and practices to minimize vulnerabilities and disaster risks throughout a society, to avoid (prevention) or to limit (mitigation and preparedness) the adverse impacts of hazards within the broad context of sustainable development (UNISDR, 2004). The disaster risk reduction framework is composed of the following fields of action:

• Risk awareness and assessment including hazard analysis and vulnerability/capacity analysis;
• Knowledge development including education, training, research and information;
• Public commitment and institutional frameworks, including organisational, policy, legislation and community action;
• Application of measures including environmental management, land-use and urban planning, protection of critical facilities, application of science and technology, partnership and networking, and financial instruments;
• Early warning systems including forecasting, dissemination of warnings, preparedness measures and reaction capacities (UNISDR, 2004: 17).

DRR strongly advocates ‘living with risk’ (UNISDR, 2004: xi). This requires societies everywhere to find a way to live with these phenomena rather than die from them.  Therefore, what is important is for the communities to fully understand the flood risk and the associated impacts within the framework of disaster risk reduction. This can be done by developing the flood hazard and risk profiles which can be used to design appropriate ‘risk reduction measures’ (Abarquez and Murshed, 2004: 6; CECI, 2011: 14) to manage and mitigate the floods and build people’s adaptation capacity and resilience (Report on the Regional Stakeholders’ Consultative Workshop on Disaster Risk Management, 2004). Risk reduction measures are various activities, projects and programs that the communities may identify after assessing and analyzing the risks that they face. These measures are specifically intended to reduce the current and prevent future risks in the community (Abarquez and Murshed, 2004). Risk reduction measures include mitigation and preparedness activities before a disaster occurs as well as response and recovery activities during and after the disaster (Centre for International Studies and Cooperation [CECI], 2011).

There is evidence that countries in Europe, America and Asia are implementing DRR innovative strategies with tremendous results. In Britain, other European nations and the United States of America, millions of pounds are invested into reducing the risks associated with floods, earthquakes and droughts (Tearfund, 2005).

Community-Based Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM) in Asia

In Asia, the importance of community-based approaches such as community-based disaster risk management (CBDRM) has been recognized since long in promoting a culture of safety through reducing local vulnerabilities and building capacities. For instance, a study conducted in Bangladesh to evaluate the many different administrative, structural, social and economic aspects of both productive capacities as well as risks of flooding in the country overwhelmingly suggested the need for much greater investment in “flood- proofing” societies by learning to live with the inevitable floods in a way that would minimize harm and loss, rather than trying to prevent the powerful forces of nature (UNISDR, 2004: 6).

Abarquez and Murshed (2004) noted that the concept of Community-based Disaster Risk Management (CBDRM) has emerged during the past two decades in South East Asian countries. CBDRM is a process of disaster risk management in which at-risk communities are actively engaged in the identification, analysis, treatment, monitoring and evaluation of disaster risks in order to reduce their vulnerabilities and enhance their capacities. This means that the people are at the heart of decision making and implementation of disaster risk management activities. The involvement of the most vulnerable is paramount and the support of the least vulnerable is necessary. In CBDRM, local and national governments are involved and supportive (Abarquez and Murshed, 2004).

Centre for International Studies and Cooperation, CECI, (2011) observes that the approach promoted under CBDRM is to build people’s capacity of coping with disaster risks and reducing their vulnerability thereby developing safer and more resilient communities. Capacities of local people are enhanced to help them assess the situation, identify risk reduction measures and implement them.

CECI (2011) pointed out that while national, provincial and local authorities have an important role to play in disaster risk management, it is the active participation and involvement of communities at the grassroots that makes the real difference. Because the community is involved in the whole process, their felt and real needs as well as inherent resources are considered. Problems will be addressed with appropriate interventions and probabilities for huge loss of life and properties will be minimized.

Vietnam is one of the South East Asian countries where CBDRM has gained ground. CECI (2011) reported that CBDRM was first introduced in Vietnam by some international Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) in 2000 and has soon become popular for many disaster risk reduction projects and programs implemented by NGOs and government organizations.  Vietnam is located in a monsoon tropical region, one of five storm beds in Asia – Pacific region that regularly faces various types of natural disasters. In recent years, natural disasters have increasingly grown up in terms of frequency and severity, causing serious loss in terms of human and property, socio-economic and cultural infrastructure and environmental damage. Climate change, rapid industrialization and urbanization compound the problem leaving communities more vulnerable to the effects. Due to the geographical characteristics, every region in Vietnam faces high frequency of floods and storms. CBDRM projects/ programmes implemented in various areas in Vietnam greatly contributed to reducing vulnerabilities and increasing community capacity for natural disaster prevention and mitigation (CECI, 2011).

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CHAPTER THREE

LITERATURE REVIEW

 Flood, Types of Floods, Causative Factors and Flood Risk Reduction

Schramm, and Dries (1986) define flood is too much water in the wrong place, whether it is an inundated city or a single street or a field flooded due to a blocked drain and identified the trigger mechanisms to include dam or levee failures; more rain than the landscape can dispose of; the torrential rains of hurricanes; tsunamis; ocean storm surges; rapid snow melts; ice floes blocking a river; and burst water mains. According to Carter (1991), floods have the following characteristics: Long, short and no warning, depending on the type of floods (for example, flooding within parts of a major river may develop over a number of days or even weeks, whereas flash floods give no warning); speed of onset may be gradual or sudden; and there may be seasonal patterns of flooding.

A flood usually submerges land, low-lying villages and towns and may occur as an overflow of water from water bodies, such as a river or lake, or sea or large natural water basins, or it may occur due to an accumulation of rainwater on saturated ground in an aerial flood (Rahman, 2014). Nott (2006) observes that the most vulnerable landscapes for floods are low-lying parts of floodplains, low-lying coasts and deltas, small basins subject to flash floods and so on. These locations attract people because rivers offer human populations transport links, a water source, recreational

amenities, fertile plains and are an attractive place for settlements. Floods therefore become a major natural hazard because of the high human population densities that inhabit these lands.

Classification of Floods

Generally, floods are classified into four types, namely: flash, riverine, coastal and urban floods (International Council for Science (ICSU) Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific 2008: 23; Smith and Ward, 1998; Schramm and Dries, 1986: 25). Other distinct ways of classifying floods are: geography: river, coastal, urban, delta and groundwater flooding; speed: flash and slow flooding; cause: storm, heavy rainfall, snow or ice melting and structural failure (Mushabati, 2014).

CHAPTER FOUR

STUDY AREA

The study area is Ikwo Local Government Area of Ebonyi State, Nigeria. Created out of Ezzikwo Division in 1976 (Onwe, 2011: 58, Eze, 2011: 520), Ikwo is one of the thirteen Local Government Areas that make up Ebonyi State. Figures 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3 respectively are: the Map of Nigeria showing Ebonyi State; Map of Ebonyi State showing Ikwo Local Government Area and Map of Ikwo Local Government Area, the study area.

CHAPTER FIVE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This study investigated the impact of flood disaster on rural communities in Ikwo L.G.A. of Ebonyi State.  The study methodology is based on survey research design. In doing this, the locations that are prone to flood and people who are prone to flood risk were critically evaluated. The study was effectively carried out by data collection from primary and secondary sources and data analysis using ANOVA techniques.

Sources of Data for the Study

Data from both secondary and primary sources were used in this study.

1. Data from secondary source: This category of data was collected from published and unpublished sources such as textbooks, journals, magazines, newspaper online publications amongst others. Population figures of the study area and study locations were collected from National Population Commission. Data on flood- prone communities were collected from SEMA and Local Emergency Management Committee (LEMC).
2. Data from primary source: This category of data was gathered through questionnaire administration which focused on perception of residents on flood incidence, magnitude and associated loss.

CHAPTER SIX

DATA PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

 Data Presentation  

The primary data used for this study were gathered through questionnaire administration and presented in tables. The data were generated in line with the research objectives. This helped to form the policy implication of the study. The set data collected include: demographic characteristics, fundamental causes of flood, impact of flood disasters on rural communities, the vulnerable groups to the flood disasters and the coping strategies employed by the rural communities during flood disaster in the study area. The questionnaire was structured to allow respondents to make multiple responses.

  Gender Structure

The demographic characteristics investigated include the gender, age structure and literacy status of the respondents (see Tables 6.1, 6.2 and 6.3).

CHAPTER SEVEN

SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION

 Summary

The study examined the impact of flood disaster on rural communities in Ikwo Local Government Area of Ebonyi State, Nigeria. Specifically, the study focused on examining the fundamental causes of flood in the study area; investigating the impact of flood disaster on rural communities in Ikwo; identifying the vulnerable groups from the disaster and the copying mechanisms employed by the rural communities during flood disaster.

Based on the historical trend of flood disaster in the study area (SEMA, 2003, LEMC 2004-2014), the study was conducted in eight out of thirteen communities that constitute Ikwo LGA. Survey method was adopted and questionnaire was the tool used to collect primary data from 400 respondents who were purposively selected from the study locations.

The result showed that the causes of flood disaster in the study area differed in different study locations. The result also showed that the flood disaster had negative impact on agriculture, health, education, housing and infrastructure sectors in the rural communities but with difference in magnitude among study locations.

In the agriculture sector, the greatest impact of the flood disaster occurred in the destruction of farmlands, food crops and economic crops. Houses with property were also destroyed. The result also established that public utilities such as electricity and rural roads were destroyed.  School and hospital buildings were also destroyed. However, the study found that the magnitude of damages due to the floods differed among study locations.

The result further showed that all the population sub-groups were vulnerable to the flood disaster but the degree of vulnerability differed across the study locations and so were the related effects suffered such as health, economic, food insecurity and contamination of water source. The challenges they faced were mostly hunger, trauma and sickness. The study also found that communities employed such coping mechanisms as drainage construction, tree planting, erosion control, seasonal farming and planting of grasses. The communities sourced information on coping mechanisms mainly from the radio and television and also from informal training which are not regular. The result also showed that the rural communities depended heavily on government agencies and NGOs for provision of relief assistance during the flood disasters which was neither regular nor sufficient.

Recommendations

Despite the devastating impact of the flood disaster, the residents of the rural communities did not perceive permanent relocation from their settlements as a solution to the flood risk as only 9% respondents saw displacement as a challenge. The residents did not favour relocation because of the strong incentive from the annual floods that continually renew the floodplains thereby making the land highly fertile for agriculture. This being the case, policy formulation to manage the flood risk should be tailored towards measures that will make the residents of the rural communities to learn to live with the inevitable floods in a way that minimizes the harm and loss that result from the disaster.

Fortunately, one of the key findings of the study is the role of information in the coping mechanisms employed by the rural communities in Ikwo LGA during flood disaster. The result showed that the residents relied heavily on the mass media (Radio and TV) for information on the coping mechanisms. This is evident in the response of over 50% of the respondents who indicated that Radio and TV were the source of information on the coping mechanisms employed during floods. Secondly, heavy reliance on informal training for information on the coping mechanisms underscores the importance of indigenous knowledge in coping with hazards such as floods. The implication of these findings is that the rural communities are willing to participate in any risk reduction measures that will make them live in harmony with the inevitable floods. The rural communities need to be empowered with information on the flood hazard they face in order to identify and implement risk reduction measures to reduce their vulnerability and build their capacity to ensure community resilience. Based on the above, disaster risk reduction measures which form the policy implications of the study are recommended namely:

1. That relevant information about flood should be disseminated to the communities through   radio and television. The programme should be in local dialect. For instance, flood early warning messages contained in the annual predictions by NIMET can be disseminated through the mass media. The messages can be translated in the local dialect of the people to make them more effective.
2. The residents’ capacity to anticipate, prepare for and respond to the floods should be enhanced through training in indigenous strategies. Training should be preceded by community risk assessment with the active involvement of the residents in order to identify the training needs of the various study locations. The CBDRM approaches that have gained ground in South East Asia can be adopted and implemented in these communities.
3. The rural communities should be assisted to develop floodplains management action plan that will ensure sustainable use of floodplain resources.
4. Multi-sectoral approach to flood mitigation as opposed to single sector should be promoted and should reflect differences in locations studied with respect to causes and the impacts of flood on rural communities.
5. Any DRR programme aimed at enhancing the capacity of the rural communities should involve all the members of the communities to ensure that the needs as well as the contribution of every stakeholder are accommodated. In this regard, the recommendations of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Reduction 2015-2030 should be implemented in these rural communities. The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015) noted that indigenous peoples, through their experience and traditional knowledge, provide an important contribution to the development and implementation of plans and mechanisms, including early warning. The Framework recommended that Governments should engage with relevant stakeholders, including women, children and youth, persons with disabilities, poor people, migrants, indigenous peoples, volunteers, the community of practitioners and older persons in the design and implementation of policies, plans and standards. The Framework also recommended the use of traditional, indigenous and local knowledge and practices, as appropriate, to complement scientific knowledge in disaster risk assessment and the development and implementation of policies, strategies, plans and programmes of specific sectors, with a cross-sectoral approach, which should be tailored to localities and to the context. It further recommended that local authorities should be empowered, as appropriate, through regulatory and financial means to work and coordinate with civil society, communities and indigenous peoples and migrants in disaster risk management at the local level.

Conclusion

The findings of this study have revealed that flood disaster has devastating impact on the rural communities which differed across study locations in Ikwo LGA. Being predominantly subsistent agrarian setting, the flood impact has manifested more in the destruction of farmlands, food crops and economic crops. The flood disaster has also caused destruction of houses with property as well as public utilities. The study has also shown that the residents have not adopted a fatalistic attitude to the flood disaster going by the number of coping strategies such as tree planting, planting of grasses and seasonal planting they employed to cope with the flood. Despite the devastating impact of the flood disaster on the rural communities in Ikwo LGA, there is no indication that the residents are ready to relocate from the locations studied. This is evident in the fact that only 9% respondents saw displacement as a challenge. The residents did not favour relocation because of the strong incentive from the annual floods that continually renew the floodplains thereby making the land highly fertile for agriculture. From the study, it is clear that flood risk is part of living in the rural communities of Ikwo LGA. It is not feasible to remove the natural hazard (flood) but it is possible to change the human actions that increase the susceptibility of the rural communities to the adverse impacts of the floods. Therefore the rural communities in Ikwo LGA must learn to live with the inevitable floods in a way that minimizes the harm and loss that result from the disaster. Implementation of disaster risk reduction measures holds the key to achieving this harmony between nature and human need.

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